The Byzantine State Church Under
According to Justinian's scheme of Church government, the Emperor was the
head of the Church in the sense that he had the right and duty of
regulating by his laws the minutest detail of worship and discipline, and
also of dictating the theological opinions to be held in the Church. This
is shown, not merely in his conduct of the Fifth General Council, but also
in his attempt, at the end of his life, to force Aphthartodocetism upon<
the Church. This position of the Emperor in relation to the Church is
known as Caesaropapism. (See Bury, Later Roman Empire, chap. XI.) The
ecclesiastical legislation of Justinian should also be considered. At the
same time Justinian strictly repressed the lingering heathenism and, in
the interest of the schools at Constantinople, closed the schools at
Athens, the last stronghold of paganism.
(a) Evagrius, Hist. Ec., IV, 39. (MSG, 86 II:2781.)
Aphthartodocetism of Justinian.
Among the many variations of Monophysitism flourishing under
Justinian was Aphthartodocetism, according to which the body of
Christ, before as well as after his resurrection, was "a glorified
body," or incapable of suffering. See selection for description.
At that time Justinian, abandoning the right road of doctrine and
following the path untrodden by the Apostles and Fathers, became entangled
in thorns and briars; and he attempted to fill the Church also with these,
but failed in his purpose, and thereby fulfilled the prediction of
prophecy. Justinian, after he had anathematized Origen, Didymus, and
Evagrius, issued what the Latins call an edict, after the deposition of
Eustochius [A. D. 556], in which he termed the body of the Lord
incorruptible and incapable of the natural and blameless passions;
affirming that the Lord ate before His passion in the same manner as after
His resurrection, His holy body having undergone no conversion or change
from the time of its actual formation in the womb, not even in respect to
the natural and voluntary passions, nor yet after the resurrection. To
this he proceeded to compel bishops in all parts to give their assent.
However, they all professed to look to Anastasius, the Bishop of Antioch,
and thus avoided the first attack.
(b) Justinian, Novella VI "Preface."
Church and State according to Justinian.
Among the greatest gifts of God bestowed by the kindness of heaven are the
priesthood and the imperial dignity. Of these the former serves things
divine; the latter rules human affairs and cares for them. Both are
derived from the one and the same source, and order human life. And,
therefore, nothing is so much a care to the emperors as the dignity of the
priesthood; so that they may always pray to God for them. For if one is in
every respect blameless and filled with confidence toward God, and the
other rightly and properly maintains in order the commonwealth intrusted
to it, there is a certain excellent harmony which furnishes whatsoever is
needful for the human race. We, therefore, have the greatest cares for the
true doctrines of God and the dignity of the priesthood which, if they
preserve it, we trust that by it great benefits will be bestowed by God,
and we shall possess undisturbed those things which we have, and in
addition acquire those things which we have not yet acquired. But all
things are well and properly carried on, if only a proper beginning is
laid, and one that is acceptable to God. But this we believe will be so if
the observance of the sacred canons is cared for, which also the Apostles,
who are rightly to be praised, and the venerated eye-witnesses and
ministers of the word of God, delivered, and which the holy Fathers have
also preserved and explained.
(c) Justinian, Novella CXXXVII, 6.
The following section from the conclusion of a novella
illustrates the manner in which Justinian legislated in matter of
internal affairs for the Church and instituted a control over the
priesthood which was other than that of the Church's own system of
discipline.
We command that all bishops and presbyters shall offer the sacred oblation
and the prayers in holy baptism not silently, but with a voice which may
be heard by the faithful people, that thereby the minds of those listening
may be moved to greater contrition and to the glory of God. For so,
indeed, the holy Apostle teaches (I Cor. 14:16; Rom. 10:10). Therefore it
is right that to our Lord Jesus Christ, to our God with the Father and the
Holy Ghost, be offered prayer in the holy oblation and other prayers with
the voice by the most holy bishops and the presbyters; for the holy
priests should know that if they neglect any of those things they shall
render an account at the terrible judgment of the great God and our
Saviour Jesus Christ, and that we shall not quietly permit such things
when we know of them and will not leave them unpunished. We command,
therefore, that the governors of the epachies, if they see anything
neglected of those things which have been decreed by us, first urge the
metropolitans and other bishops to celebrate the aforesaid synods, and do
whatsoever things we have ordered by this present law concerning synods,
and, if they see them delaying, let them report to us, that from us may
come a proper correction of those who put off holding synods. And the
governors and the officials subject to them should know that if they do
not observe these matters they will be liable to the extreme penalty
[i.e., death]. But we confirm by this present law all things which have
been decreed by us in various constitutions concerning bishops,
presbyters, and other clerics, and further concerning lodging-places for
strangers, poor-houses, orphan asylums and others as many as are over the
sacred buildings.
(d) Justinian, Novella CXXIII, 1.
Laws governing the ordination of bishops.
We decree that whenever it is necessary to ordain a bishop, the clergy and
the leading citizens whose is the bishop who is to be ordained shall make,
under peril of their souls, with the holy Gospels placed before them,
certificates concerning three persons, testifying in the same certificates
that they have not chosen them for any gifts or promises or for reasons of
friendship, or any other cause, but because they know that they are of the
true and Catholic faith and of honest life, and learned in science and
that none of them has either wife or children, and know that they have
neither concubine nor natural children, but that if any of them had a wife
the same was one and first, neither a widow nor separated from her
husband, nor prohibited by the laws and sacred canons; and know that they
are not a curial or an official, or, in case they should be such, are not
liable to any curial or official duty; and they know that they have in
such case spent not less than fifteen years in a monastery. This also is
to be contained in the certificate: that they know the person selected by
them to be not less than thirty years of age; so that from the three
persons for whom these certificates were made the best may be ordained by
the choice and at the peril of him who ordains. But a curial or an
official who, as has been said, has lived fifteen years in a monastery and
is advanced to the episcopate is freed from his rank so that as freed from
the curia he may retain a fourth part of his property, since the rest of
his property, according to our law, is to be claimed by the curia and
fisc. Also we give to those who make the certificate the privilege that if
they deem a layman, with the exception of a curial or an official, worthy
of the said election, they may choose such layman with the two other
clergy or monks, but so, however, that the layman who has in this way been
chosen to the episcopate shall not be ordained at once, but shall first be
numbered among the clergy not less than three months, and so having
learned the holy canons and the sacred ministry of the Church, he shall be
ordained bishop; for he who ought to teach others ought not himself to be
taught by others after his consecration. But if by chance there are not
found in any place three persons eligible to such election, it is
permitted those who make the certificates to make them for two or even for
only one person, who shall each have the testimonials mentioned by us. But
if those who ought to elect a bishop do not make this certificate within
six months, then, at the peril of his soul, let him who ought to ordain
ordain a bishop, provided, however, that all things which we have said be
observed. But if any one is made bishop contrary to the aforesaid rules,
we command that he be driven entirely from the episcopate; but as for him
who dared to ordain him against these commands, let him be separated from
the sacred ministry for a year and all his property, which at any time or
in any way shall come into his possession, shall be seized on account of
the crime he has committed against the rule of the Church of which he was
a bishop.
Ch. 13. We do not permit clergy to be ordained unless they are educated,
have the right faith, and an honorable life, and neither have, nor have
had, a concubine or natural children, but who either live chastely or have
a lawful wife and her one and only, neither a widow not separated from her
husband, nor forbidden by laws and sacred canons.
Ch. 14. We do not permit presbyters to be made less than thirty years old,
deacons and sub-deacons less than twenty-five, and lectors less than
sixteen; nor a deaconess to be ordained(207) in the holy Church who is
less than forty years old and who has been married a second time.
(e) Justinian, Codex, I, 11.
Law against paganism.
The following laws of Justinian, though of uncertain date, mark
the termination of the contest between Christianity and paganism.
In the second of these laws there is a reference to the
prohibition of pagan teachers. It is in line with the closing of
the schools of the heathen teachers at Athens. The decree closing
the schools has not been preserved.
Ch. 9. We command that our magistrates in this royal city and in the
provinces take care with the greatest zeal that, having been informed by
themselves or the most religious bishops of this matter, they make inquiry
according to law into all impurities of pagan(208) superstitions, that
they be not committed, and if committed that they be punished; but if
their repression exceed provincial power, these things are to be referred
to us, that the responsibility for, and incitement of, these crimes may
not rest upon them.
(1) It is permitted no one, either in testament or by gift, to leave or
give anything to persons or places for the maintenance of pagan impiety,
even if it is not expressly contained in the words of the will, testament,
or donation, but can be truly perceived in some other way by the judges.
(2) But those things which are so left or given shall be taken from the
persons and places to whom they have been given or left, and shall belong
to the cities in which such persons dwell or in which such places are
situated, so that they may be paid as a form of revenue. (3) All penalties
which have been introduced by previous emperors against the errors of
pagans or in favor of the orthodox faith are to remain in force and effect
forever and guarded by this present pious legislation.
Ch. 10. Because some are found who are imbued with the error of the
impious and detestable pagans, and do those things which move a merciful
God to just wrath, and that we may not suffer ourselves to leave
uncorrected matters which concern these things, but, knowing that they
have abandoned the worship of the true and only God, and have in insane
error offered sacrifices, and, filled with all impiety, have celebrated
solemnities, we subject those who have committed these things, after they
have been held worthy of holy baptism, to the punishment appropriate to
the crimes of which they have been convicted; but for the future we decree
to all by this present law that they who have been made Christians and at
any time have been deemed worthy of the holy and saving baptism, if it
appear that they have remained still in the error of the pagans, shall
suffer capital punishment.
(1) Those who have not yet been worthy of the venerable rite of baptism
shall report themselves, if they dwell in this royal city or in the
provinces, and go to the holy churches with their wives and children and
all the household subject to them, and be taught the true faith of
Christians, so that having been taught their former error henceforth to be
rejected, they may receive saving baptism, or know, if they regard these
things of small value, that they are to have no part in all those things
which belong to our commonwealth, neither is it permitted them to become
owners of anything movable or immovable, but, deprived of everything, they
are to be left in poverty, and besides are subject to appropriate
penalties.
(2) We forbid also that any branch of learning be taught by those who
labor under the insanity of the impious pagans, so that they may not for
this reason pretend that they instruct those who unfortunately resort to
them, but in reality corrupt the minds of their pupils; and let them not
receive any support from the public treasury, since they are not permitted
by the Holy Scriptures or by pragmatic forms [public decrees] to claim
anything of the sort for themselves.
(3) For if any one here or in the provinces shall have been convicted of
not having hastened to the holy churches with his wife and children, as
said, he shall suffer the aforesaid penalties, and the fisc shall claim
his property, and they shall be sent into exile.
(4) If any one in our commonwealth, hiding himself, shall be discovered to
have celebrated sacrifices or the worship of idols, let him suffer the
same capital punishment as the Manichaeans and, what is the same, the
Borborani [certain Ophitic Gnostics; cf. DCB], for we judge them to be
similar to these.
(5) Also we decree that their children of tender years shall at once and
without delay receive saving baptism; but they who have passed beyond
their earliest age shall attend the holy churches and be instructed in the
Holy Scriptures, and so give themselves to sincere penitence that, having
rejected their early error, they may receive the venerable rite of
baptism, for in this way let them steadfastly receive the true faith of
the orthodox and not again fall back into their former error.
(6) But those who, for the sake of retaining their military rank or their
dignity or their goods, shall in pretence accept saving baptism, but have
left their wives and children and others who are in their households in
the error of pagans, we command that they be deprived of their goods and
have no part in our commonwealth, since it is manifest that they have not
received holy baptism in good faith.
(7) These things, therefore, we decree against the abominable pagans and
the Manichaeans, of which Manichaeans the Borborani are a part.
More
-
Gregory The Great And The Roman
Gregory the Great was born about 540. In 573 he was appointed prefect of the city of Rome, but resigned the following year to become a monk. Having been ordained deacon, he was sent in 579 to Constantinople as papal apocrisiarius, or resident amba... Heathen Religious Feeling And Cu
The Christian religion in the course of the latter part of the second century began to attract the attention of heathen writers; it became an object of literary attack. The principal literary opponent of Christianity was Celsus, who subjected the ... Julian The Apostate
The reign of Julian the Apostate (361-363) is important in the history of the Christian Church, in the first place, as indicating the slight hold which heathenism had retained as a system upon the bulk of the people and the impossibility of revivi... Later Gnosticism
Though Gnosticism was expelled from the Church as it perfected its organization and institutions on the basis of the episcopate, the Canon of Scripture, and the creeds, outside the Catholic Church, or the Church as thus organized, Gnosticism exist... Later Montanism And The Conseque
In the West Montanism rapidly discarded the extravagant chiliasm of Montanus and his immediate followers; it laid nearly all the stress upon the continued work of the Holy Spirit in the Church and the need of a stricter moral discipline among Chri... Manichaeanism
The last great rival religion to Christianity was Manichaeanism, the last of the important syncretistic religions which drew from Persian and allied sources. Its connection with Christianity was at first slight and its affinities were with Eastern... Marcion
Recently Marcion has been commonly treated apart from the Gnostics on account of the large use he made of the Pauline writings. By some he has even been regarded as a champion of Pauline ideas which had failed to hold a place in Christian thought.... Martyrdom And The Desire For Mar
Ignatius of Antioch, Ep. ad Romanos, 4. Ignatius was bishop of Antioch in the opening years of the second century. According to tradition, he suffered martyrdom in Rome under Trajan, circa 117. Having been sent from Antioch to Rome... Montanism
Montanism was, in part at least, an attempt to revive the enthusiastic prophetic element in the early Christian life. In its first manifestations, in Asia Minor, Montanism was wild and fanatical. It soon spread to the West, and in doing so it beca... Moral Ideas In The Post-apostoli
Christians were convinced that their religion made the highest possible moral demands upon them. They were to live in the world, but remain uncontaminated by it (cf. supra, § 11). This belief even candid heathen were sometimes forced to admit (cf... Neo-platonism
The last phase of Hellenic philosophy was religious. It aimed to combine the principles of many schools of the earlier period and to present a metaphysical system that would at once give a theory of being and also furnish a philosophical basis for... Period I The Apostolic Age To C
The period in the Church before the clash with Gnosticism and the rise of an apologetic literature comprises the apostolic and the post-apostolic ages. These names have become traditional. The so-called apostolic age, or to circa 100, is that in w... Period I The Imperial State Chu
The history of the Church in the first period of the second division of the history of ancient Christianity has to deal primarily with three lines of development, viz.: first, the relation of the Church to the imperial authority and the religious ... Period Ii The Church From The Pe
In the second period of the history of the Church under the Christian Empire, the Church, although existing in two divisions of the Empire and experiencing very different political fortunes, may still be regarded as forming a whole. The theologica... Period Iii The Critical Period
The interval between the close of the post-apostolic age and the end of the second century, or from about 140 to 200, may be called the Critical Period of Ancient Christianity. In this period there grew up conceptions of Christianity which were fe... Period Iv The Age Of The Consoli
In the fourth period of the Church under the heathen Empire, or the period of the consolidation of the Church, the number of Christians increased so rapidly that the relation of the Roman State to the Church became a matter of the gravest importan... Relation Of The Roman State To C
The procedure of the Roman Government against the Christians first took a definite form with the rescript of Trajan addressed to Pliny circa A. D. 111-113, but there is no formal imperial edict extant before Decius on the question of the Christian... Religious Syncretism In The Thir
In the third century religious syncretism took two leading forms--the Mithraic worship, which spread rapidly throughout the Empire, and the fashionable interest in novel religions fostered by the imperial court. Mithraism was especially prevalent ... Results Of The Decision Of Chalc
The definition of the Council of Chalcedon, in spite of its condemnation of Nestorius and its approval of the letters of Cyril, was a triumph of the Antiochian school and a condemnation of Alexandrian theology. At Chalcedon no more than at Nicaea ... Rise Of Schisms In Consequence O
The Diocletian persecution and its various continuations, on account of the severity of the persecution and its great extent, seriously strained the organization of the Church for a time, and in at least three important Church centres gave rise to... Rome Constantinople And The Lomb
The Sixth General Council was the last great diplomatic triumph of Rome in the East in matters of faith, though two centuries after, in the matter of Photius, Rome played a brilliant part in the internal affairs of the Eastern Church. Immediately ... Rome Constantinople And The Lomb
By the eight century the veneration of pictures or icons had become wide-spread throughout the Eastern Church. Apart from their due place in the cultus, grave abuses and superstitions had arisen in many parts of the Church in connection with the i... Semi-pelagian Controversy
With the condemnation of Pelagianism the doctrine of Augustine in its logically worked out details was not necessarily approved. The necessity of baptism for the remission of sins in all cases was approved as well as the necessity of grace. The do... Social Significance Of The State
The Church at no time degenerated into a mere department of the State. In spite of the worldly passions that invaded it and the dissensions that distracted it, the Church remained mindful of its duty as not merely a guardian of the deposit of fait... Sole Authority Of The State Chur
When Theodosius had successfully forced upon the East the theology of Nicaea, his policy as to religious matters was manifest. No longer was heresy to be allowed. Laws were to control opinion in the same way that they did conduct. The old plea of ... State And Church Under Septimius
Although Christians were at first favored by Septimius Severus, they were still liable to the severe laws against secret societies, and the policy of Septimius was later to enforce these laws. The Christians tried to escape the penalties prescribe... The Age Of Justinian
Justinian I, the greatest of all the rulers of the Eastern Empire, succeeded his uncle Justin I (518-527); but he had, from the beginning of the latter's reign, exercised an ever-increasing influence over the imperial policy, and to him can be att... The Apologetic Conception Of Chr
Christianity was regarded as a revealed philosophy by the apologists. This they considered under three principal aspects: knowledge, or a revelation of the divine nature; a new law, or a code of morals given by Christ; and life, or future rewards ... The Apostles Creed
By the middle of the second century there were current in the Church brief confessions of faith which had already been in use from a time in the remoter past as summaries of the apostolic faith. They were naturally attributed to the Apostles thems... The Apostolic Tradition And The
The Gnostics claimed apostolic authority for their teaching and appealed to successions of teachers who had handed down their teachings. This procedure forced the Church to lay stress upon the obvious fact that its doctrine was derived from the Ap... The Asia Minor Conception Of Chr
The Asia Minor school regarded Christianity primarily as redemption, salvation, the imparting of new power, life, and incorruptibility by union with divinity in the Incarnation. Its leading representative was Irenaeus, a native of Asia Minor, but ... The Attitude Of The Roman Govern
No general persecution of the Christians was undertaken by the Roman Government during the second century, though Christians were not infrequently put to death under the existing laws. These laws, however, were by no means uniformly carried out. T... The Beginnings Of Catholic Theol
The theology of the Church, as distinguished from the current traditional theology, was the statement of the beliefs commonly held by Christians but expressed in the more precise and scientific language of current philosophy, the co-ordination of ... The Beginnings Of Councils As A
Ecclesiastical councils were the first defence against heresy. As the Church had not as yet attained its hierarchical constitution and the autonomy of the local church still persisted, these councils had little more than the combined authority of ... The Beginnings Of Monasticism
Asceticism in some form is common to almost all religions. It was practised extensively in early Christianity and ascetics of both sexes were numerous. This asceticism, in addition to a life largely devoted to prayer and fasting, was marked by ref... The Beginnings Of The Eusebian R
Shortly after the Council of Nicaea, Constantine seems to have become aware of the fact that the decision at that council was not acceptable in the East as a whole, representing, as it did, what was generally felt to be an extreme position. In com... The Byzantine State Church Under
According to Justinian's scheme of Church government, the Emperor was the head of the Church in the sense that he had the right and duty of regulating by his laws the minutest detail of worship and discipline, and also of dictating the theological... The Canon Or The Authoritative N
The Gnostics used in support of their doctrines writings which they attributed to the Apostles, thus having a direct apostolic witness to these doctrines. This they did in imitation of the Church's practice of using apostolic writings for edificat... The Catechetical School Of Alexa
Three types of theology developed in the ante-Nicene Church: the Asia Minor school, best represented by Irenaeus (v. § 33); the North African, represented by Tertullian and Cyprian (v. § 39); and the Alexandrian, in the Catechetical School of wh... The Celtic Church In The British
Christianity was probably planted in the British Isles during the second century; as to its growth in the ante-Nicene period little is definitely known. Representatives of the British Church were at Arles in 314. The Church was in close connection... The Chiliastic Controversy
During the third century the belief in chiliasm as a part of the Church's faith died out in nearly all parts of the Church. It did not seem called for by the condition of the Church, which was rapidly adjusting itself to the world in which it foun... The Christological Problem And T
The Arian controversy in bringing about the affirmation of the true deity of the Son, or Logos, left the Church with the problem of the unity of the divine and human natures in the personality of Jesus. It seemed to not a few that to combine perfe... The Church And The World
So long as chiliastic expectations were the basis of the Christian's hope and his judgment of the order of this present world, the Christian felt that he was but a stranger and sojourner in the world, and that his real home was the kingdom of Chri... The Church At The Beginning Of T
Although Theodosius the Great had been the dominating power in the government of the Empire almost from his accession in 379, he was sole ruler of the united Roman Empire for only a few months before his death in 395. The East and the West became ... The Church In Relation To The Em
In the course of the second century the Church spread rapidly into all parts of the Empire, and even beyond. It became so prominent that the relation of the Church to heathen thought and institutions underwent a marked change. Persecutions of Chri... The Church In The Eastern Empire
At the beginning of the permanent division of the Empire, the church life of the East was disturbed by a series of closely connected disputes known as the First Origenistic Controversy (§ 87), in which were comprised a conflict between a rational... The Church Of Italy Under The Os
The schism between New and Old Rome lasted from 484 to 517, but attempts were made on both sides to end the deplorable situation. The two successors of Acacius were willing to resume communion with Rome and restore the name of the bishop of Rome t... The Church Of The Western Empire
The period between the closing years of the fourth century, in which the struggle was still going on between heathenism and Christianity (§ 81), and the end of the Roman Empire of the West is of fundamental importance in the study of the history ... The Constitution Of The State Ch
The Church's constitution received its permanent form in this period. The conciliar system was carried to its logical completion in the ecumenical council representing the entire Church and standing at the head of a system which included the provi... The Conversion Of The Franks The
Chlodowech (Clovis, 481-511) was originally a king of the Salian Franks, near Tournay. By his energy he became king of all the Franks, and, overthrowing Syagrius in 486, pushed his frontier to the Loire. In 496 he conquered a portion of the Aleman... The Death Of Peter And Paul
Eusebius, Hist. Ec., II, 25. (MSG, 20:207.) Cf. Mirbt, n. 33. For an examination of the merits of Eusebius as a historian, see McGiffert's edition, PNF, ser. II, vol. I, pp. 45-52; also J. B. Lightfoot, art. "Eusebius (23) of C... The Death Of The Apostle John
(a) Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses, II, 22, 5; III, 3, 4. (MSG, 7:785, 854.) Irenaeus was bishop of Lyons soon after 177. He was born in Asia Minor about 120, and was a disciple of Polycarp (ob. circa 155) and of other elders who had... The Decian-valerian Persecution
The first persecution which may fairly be said to have been general in purpose and effect was that falling in the reigns of Decius (249-251) and Valerian (253-260). Of the course of the persecution we have information bearing directly upon Carthag... The Defence Against Heresy
The Church first met the various dangerous heresies which distracted it in the second century by councils or gatherings of bishops (§ 26). Although it was not difficult to bring about a condemnation of novel and manifestly erroneous doctrine, the... The Definitive Type Of Religion
The works of Dionysius the Areopagite first appear in the controversies in the reign of Justinian, when they are quoted in the Conference with the Severians, 531 or 533. There are citations from the works of the Areopagite fifteen or twenty years ... The Development Of The Cultus
The Church's cultus and sacramental system developed rapidly in the third century. The beginnings of the administration of the sacraments according to prescribed forms are to be traced to the Didache and Justin Martyr (see above, §§ 13, 14). At ... The Diocletian Persecution
The last great persecution was preceded by a number of laws aimed to annoy the Christians. On March 12, 295, all soldiers in the army were ordered to offer sacrifice. In 296 sacred books of the Christians were sought for and burnt at Alexandria. I... The Dissolution Of The Imperial
The third period of the ancient Church under the Christian Empire begins with the accession of Justin I (518-527), and the end of the first schism between Rome and Constantinople (519). The termination of the period is not so clearly marked. By th... The Dogmatic Parties And Their M
The parties in the Arian controversy became greatly divided in the course of the conflict. Speaking broadly, there were still two groups, of which one was composed of all those who regarded the Son as a creature and so not eternal and not truly Go... The Donatist Schism Under Consta
The Donatist schism arose in connection with the Diocletian persecution, in part over the policy of Mensurius of Carthage regarding the fanatical desire for martyrdom and the delivery of the sacred books according to the edict of persecution. Comb... The Earlier Gnostics Gnosticism
Gnosticism is a generic name for a vast number of syncretistic religious systems prevalent, especially in the East, both before and after the Christian era. For the most part the movement was outside of Christianity, and was already dying out when... The Easter Controversy And The S
The Church grew up with only a loose form of organization. Each local congregation was for a while autonomous, and it was the local constitution that first took a definite and fixed form. In the first centuries local customs naturally varied, and ... The Emperor Theodosius And The T
The Emperor Theodosius was appointed colleague of Gratian and Valentinian II, 378. He issued in conjunction with these emperors an edict (Cod. Theod., XVI, 1, 2; cf. Cod. Just., I, 1, 1, v. infra, § 72, b, e), requiring all subjects of the Empire... The Emperors From Jovian To Theo
The reign of Jovian lasted so short a time, June, 363, to February, 364, that he had no time to develop a policy, and the assertion of Theodoret that he extinguished the heathen sacrificial fires is doubtful. On the death of Jovian, Valentinian wa... The Empire And The Imperial Stat
In the period extending from the accession of Constantine (311 or 324) to the death of Theodosius the Great (395), the characteristic features of the Church's organization took definite form, and its relations to the secular authorities and the so... The Empire Of The Dynasty Of The
Emperors of the West: Honorius; born 384, Emperor 395-423. Valentinian III; born 419, Emperor 425-455; son of Galla Placidia, the daughter of Theodosius the Great, and the Empress of the West 419-450. Emperors of the ... The Empire Under Constantine And
Constantine became sole Emperor of the West, 312, and by the defeat of Licinius, July 23, 324, sole ruler of the entire Roman Empire. On his death, May 22, 337, his three sons divided between them the imperial dignity: Constantine II (337-340), ta... The Episcopate In The Church
The greatest name connected with the development of the hierarchical conception of the Church in the third century is without question Cyprian (see § 49). He developed the conception of the episcopate beyond the point it had reached in the hands ... The Eutychian Controversy And Th
What is known as the Eutychian controversy is less a dogmatic controversy than a struggle between the patriarchs of the East for supremacy, using party theological differences as a support. Few passages in the history of the Church are more painfu... The Extension Of Christianity
It is impossible to determine with accuracy even the principal places to which Christianity had spread in the first half of the second century. Ancient writers were not infrequently led astray by their own rhetoric in dealing with this topic. ... The Extension Of Christianity
Under the head of Extension of Christianity are to be placed only such texts as may be regarded as evidence for the presence of the Church in a well-defined locality. It is apparent that the evidence must be incomplete, for many places must have r... The Extension Of Monasticism Thr
Asceticism arose within the Christian Church partly as the practical expression of the conviction of the worthlessness of things transitory and partly as a reaction against the moral laxity of the times. As this laxity could not be kept entirely o...